@GregValiant, thanks for the suggestion, unfortunately that did not work.
However, after doing some more digging in my display settings I discovered that I was using the monitor connected via the USB Dock (DisplayLink) as my "main display", and it appears the Cura attempts to place itself on the "main display". I changed the setting so that the main display was connected directly to the laptop instead of the dock, and Cura started successfully.
After some more digging, I found/remembered that a few months ago in Settings > System > Display > Graphics settings I set Cura to always use my Nvidia graphics card (on a windows laptop with dual graphics). After removing this setting everything started working again regardless of what monitor was configured as the main display. Obviously, Nvidia cannot render the graphics over a USB adapter, and it seems that setting was causing the issues with the Cura rendering engine.